Construction of the New York City Subway System Origins and the Elevated Railways: What happened below was the result of what happened above. Measuring a meager two miles wide by 13 miles long, 23-square-mile Manhattan Island grew into one of the world's most populace cities. Like a cohesive trunk, it grew four other branches, or boroughs, in 1898, which stretched to Brooklyn, the Bronx, Queens, and Staten Island, and became unified as New York City. Although its insular status would have logically dictated the opposite, this jigsaw puzzle of land parcels, sandwiched between the East and Hudson rivers, was quickly fed by the Erie Canal and its bustling, East Coast ports. Lower Manhattan, incubating most of the city's businesses and industry, grew ever-denser and needed a frequent, low-cost means of access for its workforce, yet the obstacles to its creation were many. Because electricity as a source of motive power had yet to become a viable option, traditional steam engine technology would forcibly have to be used, yet it was ill-suited toward anything but short, underground tunnel passage and would therefore be relegated to outside, elevated track. Financial hurdles were likely to be considerable, and few would be willing to inject such a massive capital outlay into a transportation mode that had yet to be tested. Who, in the event, would own such a network and, even if its costs could be covered, how high would its fares have to be to do so? Any street-level usage by track-plying trains would obviously require significant approvals, permits, and contracts from city, state, and governmental agencies and regulators. What was needed was a method to transport its burgeoning population, which had begun to obstruct its streets as if they were clogged arteries. Tracks, laid both on and above them, would, albeit temporarily, serve that purpose before they found their way below them. Indeed, a quad-wheeled wooden passenger car, pulled by two horses and constituting the New York and Harlem Railroad, became Manhattan's--and the world's--first horse rail company, providing surface travel between Prince and Fourteenth streets via the Bowery when it commenced service almost two centuries ago, on November 26, 1832. A byproduct, foreshadowing events to come, fostered outlying population growth and construction, enabling residents to commute from increasingly distanced dwellings to core-city businesses. So popular had these horse railroads-along with their trackless, but equally equestrian-propelled omnibuses-become by the middle of the 19thcentury, that street congestion negated their speed advantages, resulting in traffic snarls and protracted commutes. The only way to continue to harness the advantages of such a transportation method was to devise a means by which it could operate independently of other, competing forms, placing its rails either above or below the existing ones. In the case of Manhattan, it meant the former-and its first elevated railroad. Designed by Charles T. Harvey, a Connecticut inventor, it employed a single, quarter-mile-long track supported by 30 columns that stretched from Day to Cortland Street and used a stationary steam engine, which propelled steel cables that in turn moved its cars. First tested on December 7, 1867, the Greenwich Street routed West Side and Yonkers Patent Railway became the world's first elevated one when it opened seven months later, on July 3. But the following year's Black Friday financial collapse, which occurred on September 24, consumed the necessary funding to either continue or expand the system. Several other ideas for what could be considered the city's first "rapid transit" system were posed. Alfred Speer of Passaic, New Jersey, for instance, envisioned a continuously moving conveyor belt that encircled New York, enabling passengers to board and deboard wherever they needed to go, although it never eclipsed the idea circulating in his head. Dr. Rufus Gilbert, a Civil War Army surgeon, advocated a dual pneumatic tube transportation system in 1872. Mounted in a Gothic arch above Broadway, the tubes themselves were intended as channels for circular streetcars. Although, like Speer's plan, it never saw the light of day that its elevated arrangement would have provided, it passed the torch, at least in concept, to the one that did. Substituting steam for Charles Harvey's cables, the New York Elevated Railway inaugurated service on February 14, 1870 along Greenwich Street and Ninth Avenue, and five years later, the tracks had reached 42nd Street. The Metropolitan Railway, a second elevated company, offered definitive, inter-urban rail transportation luxury with oil lamp chandeliers, oak and mahogany walls, murals, tapestry curtains, couches, and carpeting in its first class cars, and plied its own Sixth Avenue elevated tracks by June 5, 1878. When it merged with New York Elevated on September 1 of the following year, it gave rise to an eventual 81 miles of stilted tracks along Second, Third, Sixth, and Ninth avenues, which reached 129th Street on the East Side and 155th Street on the west and enabled some 14 million passengers to be carried to the fringes of the Bronx. Owned by the Manhattan Railway Company, all of the elevated lines collectively carried 184 million passengers by the turn of the century Compared to the existing, horse-drawn, street-level lines, this system afforded far greater convenience and a three-fold speed increase to its passengers. But, since all technologies inherently incorporated trade offs, it had its own: its erector set of track supporting structures were less than attractive and permanently shielded the streets over which they passed from the sun. Plied by a continual parade of coal-snorting and steam belching engines, they emitted a trail of carbon and burning cinders, which settled on to pedestrians like black, microscopic snow. And they created a virtual 24-hour symphony of chugging, puffing, and track clacking, which rendered it difficult to be heard immediately below them. Although the most extensive rapid transit network had been created by 1890, New York's intertwine of track could still not meet the insatiable demand. Indeed, with every rail that was laid, there was always a line of people waiting to ride it, and before they choked the city into transportation asphyxiation, it became apparent that elevated steam engines had become an interim-technology solution and a third realm of railroad construction would have to be explored. That realm was below ground. Interborough Rapid Transit: It already had. In 1868, Alfred E. Beach was granted approval to construct below-ground pneumatic tubes through which mail could be rapidly sent from one location to another, but their announced purpose was only to increase his chances of obtaining the necessary permit for his intended purpose-a nine-foot-wide, 312-foot-long tube or tunnel bored under Broadway between Murray and Warren streets, in which to propel a single, 22-passenger, track-guided car by means of pneumatics. A stationary, 50-ton ventilator, creating 100,000 cubic feet of air per minutes, veritably sucked the vehicle at ten mph from its origin to its destination and then ran in reverse to pull it back. Unveiled on February 26, 1870, the Beach Pneumatic Railway, although only intended as a demonstrator, became New York's first subway and operated until 1873, carrying, because of its novelty, more than 400,000 riders in its first year alone. Although it could have conceptually served as the beginning of a longer underground rail system, its pneumatic technology, coupled with prohibitive costs, was impracticable for grater-distance, multiple-train operations, leaving Beach to revert to steam as a power source. Yet, he was unable to secure the needed funding for such a complex labyrinth of tunnels, tracks, and stations. And he was not the only one trying. During the same year that he had been granted his "mail tube" construction approval, the New York City Central Underground Railway Company proposed its own underground line from City Hall to the Harlem River, but never dug a single shovel of dirt, while the New York City Rapid Transit Company, associated with the likes of Cornelius Vanderbilt, considered a City Hall routing four years later that was intended to connect with the New York and Harlem road at 59th Street. Again, it became another stillborn venture. That, however, was about to change, and its roots, ironically, were planted above. On January 31, 1888, Abram S. Hewitt, then New York City mayor, sent a proposal to the Board of Alderman, advocating a government funded rapid transit railway, covering the Manhattan-City Hall to today's Bronx area. Envisioning advanced technology that would quadruple the speeds of existing, 12-mph elevated railroads, he saw it as a catalyst to the city's expansion, enabling it to maintain its already-earned premier, North American status. Although his proposal was rejected, ideas, unlike seeds, continue to grown even without the soil that would have to be dug for such a subway system, and this one sprouted passage of the Rapid Transit Act three years later and a return to the underground. Two significant technological advances had intermittently been made: electric-powered traction motors could now provide the needed propulsion, which avoided steam-associated pollution and health hazards, and multiple-unit control would soon enable a chain of cars to be cohesively operated as one as opposed to a half dozen or more independent units. The world's first electricity-powered subway system, replacing its steam-powered predecessor, inaugurated service in London on December 18, 1890, demonstrating its feasibility, but construction costs on this side of the Atlantic were predicted to be five times higher than those of comparable, above-ground elevated lines and subterranean tracks below Manhattan's ever-rising skyscrapers would likely have to face formidable natural and man-made obstructions. A commission, authorized by the act, was to serve two purposes: 1). To determine the proposed rail line's optimum routes without, at this point, stipulation of their above- or below-ground installation and 2). To select a franchise to construct and operate it. William Steinway, who had been famous for the piano that bore his name and whose Steinway and Hunter's Point, horse-drawn railway had run to the East River in order to improve access to Queens, served as chairman of the commission and he initially approved two routes. The first, following Broadway, would connect the Bronx with South Ferry, while the second would branch from the main line at Union Square and also serve the Bronx, but via Madison Avenue. Bidders were nonexistent. Seeking to remedy this lack of response, Hewitt proposed an amendment to the act, permitting municipal ownership of the envisioned subterranean rail network and the change served as the needed draw-at least for two bidders. The Rapid Transit Commission, formed to take the reigns from the Steinway one and ride the still-nonexistent rails to the light at the end of their tunnel, ultimately-and perhaps ironically-chose the less ambitious route and masterplan Steinway himself submitted through his engineering staff. On August 6, 1896, the commission accepted the proposal and awarded its construction to contractor John B. MacDonald, lower of the two bidders, on January 15, 1900. Having already amassed valuable construction experience, he had built a tunnel under the Patapsco River for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, the world's first underground electric one, as well as having bored an obstacle-ridden tunnel under Park Avenue for Cornelius Vanderbilt. Banking connections were the strengths August Belmont brought to the project. A banker and financier himself, he was selected to obtain the necessary funding for the $35 million, 4.5-year construction project and the $2,750,000 for station sites and terminals, to serve as supervisor, and to incorporate the Rapid Transit Subway Construction Company, which was awarded Contract #1. The first tunnel, albeit a symbolic one of little more than a foot, was dug on March 26, 1900 when the first shovel penetrated dirt, below which New York City's real track-cocooning passageway would take shape and provide unimpeded, subterranean access for the mechanized termites to eventually ply it. As one of the million shovels to come, it represented the human technology and manual labor that the 7,700-strong workforce, at its peak, would replicate as it opposed the city's substrata with picks and drills in order to transform rock for rail riders. That this was a monumental undertaking was an understatement. Surmounting mountains, it was quickly demonstrated, was not restricted to above-ground construction. Propelled by mere muscle, hand-held shovels and pick axes, along with sticks of dynamite, painstakingly penetrated schist, hard rock characteristic of Manhattan's topographical foundation, while its lower portion, from the tip to 23rdStreet, offered the diametric opposite-or sand, which itself was a remnant of the marshland of which it was made. Like an obstacle course, New York's "basement" was littered with water and gas mains, sewers, electric conduits, and steam pipes, which often required relocation. Several construction methods were employed, the most fundamental of which entailed a cut-and-cover excavation process, but it was frequently modified to conquer utility obstructions. Streets were removed, as if they were made of flesh to be scalpeled and peeled back. Steel I-beams, spread five feet apart, provided support between the tunnel's four-inch-thick concrete base and its flat roof, and tracks were laid within this framework. Elevated rails were supported by steel viaducts and the Harlem and East rivers were traversed by means of cast iron tubes. Standard gauge, four-foot, 8.5-inch tracks, built up of 100-pound rails, hard pine cross ties, and broken stone ballast, varied in number, from two to three to four, according to section, the latter two configurations facilitating both local and express, up- and downtown operations, and stations were formed by 200- to 350-foot-long by 150-foot-wide side and island platforms. Of the 48 constructed, 33 were underground, 11 were on viaducts, three were halfway below the surface, and one was located half way between the surface and a viaduct. An electro-pneumatic block and interlocking signal system facilitated high-speed travel, its switches operated by power from central points. Unlike the steam-powered elevated trains and the experimental pneumatic car, the subway would be electrically powered, drawing from the world's largest power plant located on the banks of the North River and generating 100,000 hp from a single row of engines and electric generators wall-separated from the boiler house. Proximity to the 700-foot-oong pier, at the beginning of West 58th Street, facilitated coal unloading and transfer to the plant. Although the subway's purpose was to transport a massive number of passengers to and from the centers of city life, such as employment, shop, service, and entertainment venues, in a northerly-southerly direction, funding, more than any other element, dictated its routing and the coverage of its network. The Elm Street Route, proposed in 1897, became the chosen one and entailed trackage from City Hall and the Brooklyn Bridge Terminal to Knights bridge and the New York and Putnam Railroad Station on the Upper West Side. Its cross-town counterpart, on the Upper East Side, terminated in Bronx Park, and a subsequent Brooklyn extension would cross the East River by means of a tunnel after running under Broadway. Numerous US and foreign rapid transit systems were studied so that the optimum combination of features could be incorporated into its car design, including length, width, interior volume, seating configuration, and number and location of passenger doors, the latter choices entailing side and/or end positions. Certain features proved contradictory to each other. The maximum, per-car capacity, for example, mandated the maximum strength, which itself could only be achieved with a high gross weight, yet motive capacity and therefore speed relied upon minimal structural weight. Frequency and station transit times were hallmarks of a subway system, but the sheer number of stations and the often brief travel times between them only eroded overall speed. The foundation for their design was, to a degree, laid by the city's home turf elevated lines, such as the Manhattan Railway Company, but many of their features were forcibly eliminated. Because of the weight limitations of their tracks, coaches were necessarily made of wood, not steel, and did not offer independent motive power, pulled, instead, by a single steam locomotive, like the traditional railroads, at significantly lower speeds. Access was generally by means of end doors through gate-provisioned platforms and fixed accommodation entailed longitudinal seats and four sets of mid-car, transverse ones. Finally, the crew consisted of the motorman, a conductor, and a trainman, who operated the doors and gates. A higher-speed underground system, coupled with tunnel clearances, curves of varying degrees, and station lengths, dictated the final design, and two prototypes were built in 1902. Constructed of wood sheathed in cooper to increase strength and improve fire protection, the 51-foot-long cars would initially join seven others, of which the first, third, fifth, sixth, and eighth were equipped with 200-hp direct current motors and the remaining three were trail cars. Train lengths were expected to be adjusted according to route, service type (local or express), and time of day. Access was provided by two sliding, manually operated doors on either side, and interiors contained a car platform-located vestibule and motorman's compartment and both longitudinal side and transverse center, rattan-covered seats for a capacity of 52. Other interior features included ten incandescent lamps installed in each side deck ceiling and an additional six on the upper deck one; 38 leather straps hung from a handrail on either side; and bronze hardware. A third rail, providing direct current to the car motors, was chosen because tunnel clearances prohibited a comparable overhead conductor arrangement, and electricity served as both heating and lighting sources. A "dead man" control feature ensured full and automatic brake application in the event that the motorman relinquished his grip on the controls, whether deliberately or due to incapacitation. An initial contract, for 500 cars, was awarded in December of 1902, and some were subjected to trial runs on the Second Avenue elevated tracks during the following two years. The New York City subway, reflecting the name of its operation corporation, became known as the "Interborough Rapid Transit Company," or "IRT," in the spring of 1902. It subsequently acquired the elevated Manhattan Railway Company, whose tracks ran above Second, Third, Sixth, and Ninth avenues in Manhattan and Third Avenue in the Bronx. August Belmont became its president. New York's first commercial rapid transit subway system-and the second in North America after that in Boston-opened on October 27, 1904, its first segment running from City Hall to 145th Street and Broadway, but its ultimate zigzag route took it up the East Side to 42nd Street, across Times Square, and then up the West. An extension of its route network, already awarded by the Rapid Transit Board as Contract #2 in 1902, took its track to the Battery via Broadway from City Hall and then below the East River to Brooklyn, threading its way under Fulton Street to Flatbush Avenue and terminating at the Long Island Railroad Station on Atlantic Avenue. Considered both a civic monument and an engineering achievement, the New York subway would soon join the Statue of Liberty as one of the city's very symbols and immediately proved its advancement over the worldwide systems that had preceded it, including those in London, Glasgow, Budapest, Paris, and Berlin. Even the most optimistic statistician could not have predicted its success. During the first five hours after its opening, for instance, it carried more than 110,000 riders and on the first Sunday it attracted more than a million of them, but was forced to turn most of them away because the number exceeded its 350,000 per day capacity. After a year of operations, it had counted 106 million passengers. But the subway was more than the numbers it carried: it changed the fabric of New York society, reducing miles to minutes below ground, so that citizens could once again ascend to the surface after a short ride-24 hours per day, if needed-sparking what became its reputation as "the city that never sleeps." Times Square, soon to be synonymous with its theater district, became its crossroads, and Broadway rose as people did-from the underground stations-disgorged into daylight, seeking apartments, stores, and services in buildings, which stretched ten to twelve stories toward the sky. The seeds of their growth, planted beneath their very foundations, could only be detected by the constant rumble underfoot as the chains of straphangers otherwise obliviously glided below at 50 mph. The Upper West Side, once a disconnected desert, was transformed into the urban area that redefined it, as people considered themselves within an arm's length of it-provided they descended to the tracks to travel there. Development, in fact, followed subway line construction, its rails tethering once-remote and barren areas to the rest of the city and sparking building booms. Real estate companies, armed with fore-knowledge of future subway routings, could be considered "inside traders," handsomely rewarded with profits as the soon predictable cycle of transportation access-construction-population growth was repeated countless times, demonstrating the philosophy of "build it and they will come"-by subway. Like the Hudson River, it served as its manmade counterpart, carrying massive numbers of people every day. From the farms and sparse parcels of land that once grew crops rose the skyscrapers which characterized New York City, and the subway lines served as the arteries that pumped the people to them. But even hearts can become overloaded when demand exceeds their capacity. In the case of the subway, it already had. Popularity proved its purpose, but to what degree had been sorely underestimated. Indeed, by 1908, some 800,000 rode its rails every day, a number far in excess of both pre-construction estimates and the system's physical capacity. Initial remedies proved little more than bandaids and included longer trains, the extended platforms to accommodate them, increased frequencies, and modified subway cars. In the latter case, loading times and consequent station transit times were reduced with the installation of a center, or third, door, and the combination longitudinal and transverse seating configurations adopted from the elevated railways were removed in favor of single, side-seat arrangements. This also increased standing room. Composite construction, upon reconsideration, was found to be less than fireproof and 300 all-steel cars manufactured by the American Car and Foundry Company of Berwick, Pennsylvania, were ordered. Powered by two, 200-hp motors and featuring high voltage controls and automatic air brakes, they otherwise offered composite coach amenities, including the initial, dual-door and mixed seating configurations, but were later retrofitted to this standard. Side vestibule doors, located at either end, were manually operated. A subsequent order, for another 325 built by the American Car and Foundry, Standard Steel Car, and the Pressed Steel Car companies, was placed between 1910 and 1911, and the type introduced electro-pneumatic braking. Despite these improvements, they did little to cater to the ever-increasing demand. What were needed were new routes and the tracks to serve them. Those tracks would have to cross the East River to New York's most populous borough-Brooklyn.
10 Easy Steps to Succeed in Your Online Classes
Congratulations Youve made up our minds to pursue your upper schooling, and doing so online is how to pass if you have an interest in a versatile, studentcentered educating manner. Studying online permits you to pursue different pursuits and attend to different responsibilities whilst nonetheless operating your method towards some extent. However, it will now and again imply that its clean to get distracted. Here are 10 clean steps to verify luck on your online categories.
- Connect together with your instructors once conceivable. Even in case you are doing smartly within the category, its extraordinarily vital to increase a rapport together with your trainer. When you do that early on, you temporarily understand what the priorities are within the route, what expectancies the professor has of you and youre going to be motivated to prevail, surer of whats forward and higher ready to do smartly with the impending subject material.
Valuable questions to invite your trainer come with the next
How versatile are you with time limits How versatile are you with grownup freshmen What applied sciences do you employ within the route How to be had are you through e mail and different sorts of verbal exchange How do you put up an internet neighborhood and what are the expectancies for participation in it In addition, since instructors are to be had to lend a hand all over the classes, its all the time just right to have had private touch with the trainer early on. This method, when you wish to have lend a hand, its more straightforward to achieve out and get the help you wish to have.
- Confirm the technical necessities of the route. Online categories can also be very advisable for college kids with busy schedules, however provided that they are able to simply get right of entry to the fabrics. It is vital to obviously perceive what the technical necessities are. So, ahead of the route begins or as quickly thereafter as conceivable, youll want to test that your pc will paintings with the entire online equipment, and that you understand how to navigate them. This will be sure that you dont must spend time all the way through the route attempting to determine the generation.
three. Create a time table and stick with it. Quality online instructors create classes which might be clean to navigate and feature transparent expectancies. Having that roughly easytodealwith framework in position will make learning and succeeding that a lot more straightforward. However, although the framework and necessities of your category arent as transparent, youll create a time table and construction, which is able to very much fortify your probabilities of luck within the route. Using equipment equivalent to Google Calendar is a good way to start out. Knowing how your weeks and months glance and scheduling blocks of analysis time for each and every activity or module will will let you stick with a time table.
four. Ask questionsall the time. When you dont perceive, ask questions. When you do perceive, ask additional questions. Instructors recognize scholars who take part, and if theres a participation or dialogue part a part of the grade, then asking high quality questions is helping guarantee your grade on this space. Even if there isnt a participation part, its all the time helpful to invite inquiries to remember to perceive the fabric and are transparent on what is needed of you.
five. Be arrangedand keep arranged. Students whore taking conventional, campusbased classes most often have a constant time table to observe each and every week, through which study room instruction is adopted through assignments out of doors the category. However, for online classes, scholars will have to search out their very own techniques to stick on most sensible in their paintings. It is crucial that you just be arranged from the start of the semester with the intention to achieve success in an internet route. For instance mark task due dates on your calendar, discover a submitting machine for each online subject material and bodily subject material that is helping you stay monitor of the whole lot simply, and shed light on find out about schedules that duvet sections of the route one by one so youve got an arranged tactic to protecting the semesters subject material as you pass alongside.
- Have a blank, quiet, and constant workspace. One factor online and inclass classes have in not unusual is that scholars all the time want a spot to review or whole assignments this is blank, quiet, and constant. You can select the place that is for youwhether or not its at a espresso store, a college library, a devoted place of business, or at house. Wherever you select to review and whole assignments, you must make it a constant location that doesnt have out of doors distractions. It is basically key that where is quiet and lets you focal point in your paintings with out distractions.
- Do no longer procrastinate. Successful distance freshmen hardly procrastinate. They dont do away with assignments or wait till the final second to write down their papers. Successful online scholars experience freedoms that come with operating at their very own tempo and the facility to finish their paintings in as a lot time because it takes them. On the opposite hand, they know that finishing their assignments is best performed early and on time cramming merely doesnt paintings, and it doesnt will let you retain knowledge longterm. Get began early on getting a success.
eight. Work in your studying comprehension. Successful distance freshmen generally tend to have just right studying comprehension abilities. Most conventional, campusbased scholars concentrate to lectures and take notes, and a few online classes additionally require this. However, the vast majority of distance freshmen are anticipated to grasp subject material thru a large amount of studying. Although far finding out classes be offering video recordings and audio clips, maximum systems require scholars to hide and grasp a considerable amount of written knowledge. If it is a problem for you, it could be very useful to first sign up in a studying comprehension route there are lots of assets online that will help you do that. This ability by myself could make a huge distinction on your luck.
nine. Establish and admire routines that be just right for you. If, for instance, youre employed best within the morning or in brief bursts, then set find out about routines that can help you find out about within the prelunch hours when your mind is contemporary. If, then again, you do best through learning at evening or at the weekends when youll devote nightowl hours or longer blocks in your learning, then make it some degree to take action. Consider how and whilst you paintings best, and enforce a find out about plan that respects the routines that be just right for you.
- Connect together with your friends. Establishing sturdy connections with friends and professors is a very powerful facet of tutorial luck, in addition to skilled development. One of essentially the most rewarding reports in schooling is finding out thru collaboration. Forming significant relationships together with your friends and professors can can help you be told extra, keep motivated, and feature an outlet to specific your personal working out of subject material. So, keep attached thru message forums, chat rooms, e mail, and different digital assets. And take note lots of the other people you meet in faculty shall be conceivable process assets down the road so determine connections and keep in contact
Florida National University gives a wealth of tutorial and professional online classes. Check out the entire choicesyour long run is ready
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